Business in China - 1131 Words

November 29th, 2012 International Business Doing Business in China The role of government when doing business in China is very important. It is especially important if you are from a different country, such as the United States, because the approaches to dealing with the government are much different. There are many factors in which should be considered when dealing with business related issues with the government. These include whether or not your business strategies go along with the plan the government has for Chinas development, understanding how the Chinese government interfaces with your business, and also how to deal with pressures from the government when they want you to do things you and your business don’t want to do.†¦show more content†¦There are also corrupt government officials that you potentially have to deal with. â€Å"There are a hundred corrupt officials who go unpunished for each one who is punished.† (Armbruster, 2007, pg.9) If that statement is even somewhat true, there has to be a large amount of corruption between officials which can go positively if you are doing business the wrong way but can also have negative effects. Having a China strategy is very important. A China strategy is a plan on how you are going to move your business into China and be successful. A China strategy is important because you have to know how to enter a market when going into a new environment, especially one as different as China’s. â€Å"China is no longer a third world country or an emerging economy. As the second largest and fastest growing economy in the world, soon to overtake the United States, it is a genuine force to be reckoned with. Within the past few years there has been a remarkable development inside China and the establishment of a significant middle class.† (Watson, 2011, pg. 51) You have to be able to know what you are going to do with your business once you are in China. You also have to have a backup plan in case you need to remove your compan y for any reason. What I found most interesting about doing business in China is the many different things you have to deal with compared toShow MoreRelatedBusiness in China1188 Words   |  5 PagesBusiness in China 1. What challenges do foreign firms face when they seek to transfer their home management style to China? 2. Discuss the reform of Chinese state-owned enterprises and related government policy changes. Evaluate the impact within the state-owned businesses and the chinese society. Chinese management Doing business in China requires a throughout understanding of their management philosophy and practices. Their management style is different in many respects from mainstreamRead MoreBusiness Organization : China And China1303 Words   |  6 Pagesmight want to thank you for giving me the chance to compose a couple words about my study arrangement and my future prospects in China. I have dependably indicated readiness and unmistakable fascination in concentrating on Single man of Business Organization in China. There are numerous explanations behind which I have picked China to want examining my major. Initially, China is instruction well disposed nation and advancing advanced education in each conceivable way without separation of race, sexualRead MoreMaking Business in China1003 Words   |  5 PagesBauchà © INTERNATIONAL MARKETING China’s culture and business practices differ from Europe or even North American. As you start making business in China, having an understanding of Chinese business â€Å"etiquette† is important to your success. Knowing and practicing common customs will also help you to avoid embarrassment, and focus on the matters at hand on critical occasions. Appearance One of the most visible changes to the human landscape of China over the past few decades has been the change in dressRead MoreEssay on Business in China1030 Words   |  5 PagesBefore doing business in China, there’s a few things needed to know about this to-be home away from home for the company. A completely different world from that of the United States, this second largest supplier is as simple as our own in business etiquette, and a few simple things can go a long way. Social-cultural, economy, legal-political, and managerial differences are just a few categories of information to be taken into consideration when pursuing a business agenda in China. Social-CulturalRead MoreThe Importance Of Business In China1447 Words   |  6 Pages â€Å"We were ready to walk away from China forever, but the friends we made in Shanghai convinced us to stay. We entered the Chinese market after spending weeks walking the streets, trying to understand the economy, the culture, the people and whether they were ready for the type of business we were in: the high end, no-replica, genuine design exhibition and events business. â€Å"Over the course of 3 years, we visited various Chinese cities and found Shanghai the most cosmopolitan and open-minded, withRead MoreBusiness Skills in China618 Words   |  3 Pagesfor intelligent and younger citizens to become the 4th generation of The Communist Party of China. Along with many others Hu Jintao was chosen to be one of the future leaders. Before becoming one of the most important people in China, Hu Jintao learned the values of business. These business skills taught by his working-class father conveyed well into his style of running the country, like a business. Hu’s Aunt had been his primary caregiver through his mother’s passing when Hu was just 7. YearsRead MoreFun Business In China786 Words   |  4 Pages According to the 2016 China fan report, since 2004, an average of 40 million new fans have been added every year, and the number of Chinese fans has reached 470 million by 2016 (Song, 2017). Especially, funs spend money to express their enthusiasm, which accounts for about $330 billion of fun consumption in the young generation, according to the monthly consumption of fans. (Song, 2017). Although in spite of the large population of China, these data also surprised. And as we know, this situationRead MoreBusiness Expansion Into China819 Words   |  3 PagesBusiness expansion into China The Americans treat conception of self on self-reliance and self promotion is more accepted as they value freedom from external interference, while for the Chinese the conception of self is viewed from a group perspective and they value self modesty as well. The other difficulty will be the language barrier that may exists between the Americans and the China dwellers. It will be ethical for the company to hire translators who will enable the clients feel at ease andRead MoreThe Business Environment Of China Essay1105 Words   |  5 Pagesbackground of globalization and information technology, the China enterprise still face problems such as business environment. Some of the significant changes in the business environment of China includes: The conflict of centralized political and democratic requirements, the economy growth of ‘high speed’ and ‘low quality’ and the appreciation and depreciation of Ren Min Bi. All these changes in the business environment will affect the business as well. ï  ¬ The conflict of centralized political and democraticRead MoreChina Business Sme5201 Words   |  21 PagesChinas market reforms and accession to the WTO has led to its economy growing rapidly, to the point where it is now the fourth largest on earth, and is expected to be in the top two within the next decade (Business Monitor International, 2006). As a result, Chinas SMEs are now facing an economy flooded with foreign capital, and with a more open economic climate than in previous years, but also a much more competitive economy, where many of their previous practices are no longer relevant. This piece

Drug Users And Human Services Utilization An Exploratory...

The article â€Å"Injection Drug Users, Crack-Cocaine Users, and Human Services Utilization: An Exploratory Study† by Ashery, Rebecca Sager; Carlson, Robert G.; Falck, Russel S.; Siegal, Harvey A. seeks to understand the perception and experiences of drug users upon utilizing Human Social Services. The research problem being addressed is formulated around the usage of social services programs among injection drug users and crack cocaine users during a two-year period. From the abstract of this article that there are no simple answers to this problem. The research is minimal and the correlation between social services and the drugs users is non-existent. The research problem initially presented clearly within the article. According to ( Ashery, Carlson, Falck, and Siegal, 1995) the usage of examples to support the claims that further examination is required to understand the relationship between drug users and social services. It further explains perceptions and experiences among drug users. However, it would appear that the research problem was expanded to include emerging patterns that were observed over the decades by social workers. The additional information created confusion and difficulties understanding the flow of the document. The author questions if there is a correlation to drug users, the accessibility to basic needs and AIDS risk reduction intervention programs to the reduction. The author made several statements that there is additional supporting evidence that isShow MoreRelatedData Warehouse Case Study4449 Words   |  18 PagesCase Study: A Data Warehouse for an Academic Medical Center Jonathan S. Einbinder, MD, MPH; Kenneth W. Scully, MS; Robert D. Pates, PhD; Jane R. Schubart, MBA, MS; Robert E. Reynolds, MD, DrPH ABSTRACT The clinical data repository (CDR) is a frequently updated relational data warehouse that provides users with direct access to detailed, ï ¬â€šexible, and rapid retrospective views of clinical, administrative, and ï ¬ nancial patient data for the University of Virginia Health System. This article presentsRead MoreMeasurement of Sevice Quality of Apollo Using Servqual12789 Words   |  52 Pageswas completed successfully because of the grace of God. Richa Kumari Amity Business School EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Service firms like other organizations are realizing the significance of customer-centered philosophies and are turning to quality management approaches to help manage their businesses. This paper starts with the concept of service quality and demonstrates the model of service quality gaps. 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Projects failed to meet the priority economic structure in the country providing thereby needs of communities; stated outputs were not achievedRead MoreArticle: Perf ormance Appraisal and Performance Management35812 Words   |  144 PagesPerformance appraisal and performance management were one of the emerging issues since last decade. Many organizations have shifted from employee’s performance appraisal system to employee’s performance management system. This paper has focused to study the evolution of employee’s performance appraisal system, critics the system suffered and how the performance management system came to the practice. The main purpose of this paper is to differentiate these two systems, employee’s performance appraisal

The Double Citizenship of Human Existence-Kant Essay

Taylor Ciali May 12, 2008 Dean Baer Kant-Final Paper The Double Citizenship of Human Existence Immanuel Kants theory of knowledge has been one of the most influential in modern Western philosophy. His basic premise is that we do not experience the world directly, but we do so by using certain intrinsic cognitive concepts. â€Å"Appearances, to the extent that as objects they are thought in accordance with the unity of categories, are called phenomena. If, however, I suppose there to be things that are merely objects of the understanding and that, nevertheless, can be given an intuition, although not to sensible intuition, then such things would be called noumena.† (A249) According to Kant, it is crucial to make a distinction between†¦show more content†¦How we explain it is that it is a realm in which time has no beginning or end. Through the use of cognitive concepts to help us make sense of the world, Kant’s theory is primarily sense based. However, this does not mean that he only believed in the existence of the sensible or physical realm. In fact, Ka nt believed that beyond the realm of phenomena, things as if they appear, there is a realm of noumena, things as they truly are. He believed that the only way we can make sense of the idea of the noumenal realm is through our mind, our intellect. Kant argued that there must be, sensibly, things as they truly are, beyond the way we perceive things. However, they can never be experienced in the noumenal realm due to the fact we can only experience things as they appear to us, phenomena. Nevertheless, noumena must exist if for no other reason than to make sense of the world we perceive around us. Case in point, even though people experience the same object as having a different color, shape, and/or texture, depending on many different reasons, one of which being where they stand in relation to it, it does not change the fact that sensibly the object must have a true form separate then the way it is perceived. According to Kant there are three ultimate modes of consciousness: Knowing, f eeling and desiring. Knowing is understanding, desiring is reasoning and feeling is judgment. Feeling is the intermediate space between noumena, reasoning, andShow MoreRelated Cultural Differentiation and Moral Orientation: Taking an Interest in History4144 Words   |  17 Pagesindividuals, judgement must have a dimension that can apprehend the purposiveness of those human achievements which are social in their significance and socially transmitted. In other words, such achievements transcend individual intention. 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Any action which helps towardsRead MoreThe Ethics Of Corporate Social Responsibility2955 Words   |  12 PagesOn very common situations of the foundries outsourcing companies, does not mean can be ignore the production process management, especially in the growing environmental awareness of human rights and labor hypertonic, consumers are also concerned about purchase the product is how are they manufactured and process. This has been deemed an important indicator of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and business ethics. The ethics of corporate social responsibility disclosure have historically beenRead Mo re Case Study on Rape Victims Essay3962 Words   |  16 Pagessuggest that the hotline operator remain honest, because any rational being would have reasoned lying to be ethically wrong in a just society. But, what if lying to the victim means that the caller is convinced to prosecute her rapist? 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By making life easier, science has given man the chance to pursue societal concerns such as ethics, aesthetics, education, and justice; to create cultures; and to improve human conditions. But it has also placed us in the unique position of being able to destroy ourselves. To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1983, NASA and The College of William and Mary jointlyRead MoreImpact of Science on Society38421 Words   |  154 PagesBeginning with the plow, science has changed how we live and what we believe. By making life easier, science has given man the chance to pursue societal concerns such as ethics, aesthetics, education, and justice; to create cultures; and to improve human conditions. But it has also placed us in the unique position of being able to destroy ourselves. 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Midsummer Nights Dream Essay Summary Example For Students

Midsummer Nights Dream Essay Summary In Shakespeares, MIDSUMMER NIGHTS DREAM, he wrote about a tragedy that he turned into a comedy. He did this to show his audience how stupid humans can act upon their emotions. There are three plots that tie together with one main situation. There is Hermia and Lysander, two star crossed lovers that cant be together. Hermias father wants her to marry Demetrius who Hermias bestfriend Helena loves. Demetrius loves Hermia and trys to pursue her. Then there is Oberon and Titania the King and Queen of the fairies. Oberon is jealous of Titania because she has an Indian boy that shes spending all her time with. He wants the baby and they have a quarrel about it. So as revenge he gets his servant Puck, a fairy, to put a potion in her eyes to distract her when Oberon steals her baby. But this potion made her fall inlove with the first living thing she saw which cooincidently was a jack ass. At first Oberon was amused but then he realized he didnt like how her attention was on the jack ass and not him. Last but not least is a group of dorky guys who are making a play for the first time. Their play is about a tragic love story that ends up in the death of both the lovers because they couldnt be together. The fairies and these clowns that are making the play are very essential for the main plot of Hermia and Lysander and their problems, because it shows how people really act and how their effects are showed in the play. The fairies are essential to the main plot because without Puck there wouldnt have been a comedy at all. Even though he brought confusion to Hermia and Helena about how Lysander and Demetrius both all of the sudden fall inlove with Hermia, at the end Oberon fixed the situation so everyone would be happy. The clowns are also needed because the play they are acting out shows if two lovers cant have each other the way they do, they act on emotions instead of logic and reality, they would take dramatic actions. This play within the play was suppose to show how if you try to keep people away from each other when they dont want to be separated they will do something to act upon your rule. Just like Lysander and Hermia running away to be together against her fathers wishes. Without this play, Theseus would have never seen it and talked to Hermias father to change his mind and allowing his daughter to marry Lysander. What Shakespeare is trying to tell his audience is that if you try to stop lovers from being with one another, theyll find another way or do something terrible. Without these subplots in the play there would be no happy ending for everyone.

Fundamentals of Hedging Derivatives and Swaps

Question: 1. The yield curve is flat at 6% per annum. What is the value of a Forward Rate Agreement where the holder receives interest at the rate of 8% per annum for a six-month period on a principal of $1,000 starting in two years? All rates are compounded semi-annually. Explain your answer. 2. A trader has a portfolio worth $5 million that mirrors the performance of a stock index. The stock index is currently 1,250. Futures contracts trade on the index with one contract being on 250 times the index. To remove market risk from the portfolio the trader should short or long in the forward or futures market? A company enters into a short futures contract to sell 50,000 units of a commodity for 70 cents per unit. The initial margin is $4,000 and the maintenance margin is $3,000. What is the futures price per unit above which there will be a margin call? 3. In which of the following cases is an asset NOT considered constructively sold? Explain your reasoning. A. The owner shorts the asset B. The owner buys an in-the-money put option on the asset C. The owner shorts a forward contract on the asset. D. The owner shorts a futures contract on the stock Answer: 1. FV of $1000 in five semi-annual periods 1000*(1+0.08/2) = 1040 PV= $ 1040/ (1+ 0.06/2) ^5 = $ 862.60878 Rounding it to $ 862.61 Investment does not start with accruing interest rate for the period of 2 years, that is 4 Semi-annual periods starting from today) After that, interest is paid after an additional 6 month of period on total of 5 semi-annual periods starting from today 2.1) Particulars Amount Portfolio $5,000,000 Stock Index price 1250 Future contract (1250 * 250) = 312,500 The number of contract required = 5,000,000 / (1250 * 250) = 5,000,000 / 312,500 = 16 contracts The portfolio mainly mirrors the stock index so selling 16 contracts might mainly help in nullifying the risk that might be incurred from volatility. Thus, short future position comprising of 16 contracts might mainly help in reducing the risk of market declines in the future. 2.b) Particulars Amount Future contracts 50,000 units Initial margin $4000 Maintenance Margin $3000 Commodity price 70 cent Calculation = (0.72-0.70) * 50,000 = 0.02 * 50,000 = 1,000 The difference between initial margin and maintenance margin is $1,000. Thus, if the contract attains a loss of $1,000 then a margin call will be activated. The future price of the commodity is 70 cents. Thus, if the price rises to 72 cents then the margin call will be activities [(0.72-0.70) * 50,000] = $1,000. Furthermore, it could be concluded that if the prices rises of 72 cents the margin call of the short position will be activated (Webber 2011). 3. From the options given, B is the correct answer. This is because profits on the assets have to be recognized in the options A, C and D. As far as holder of the asset is concerned, it cannot be deferred in profit recognition matters with indication of trading activities (RheinlaÃÅ'ˆnder and Sexton 2011). In the given case, B option is the answer, as asset is not considered for constructively sold in any form (Barnett and Cohn 2011). In other words, purchasing money by using put option is profit-locking system in the asset without triggering immediate liability of tax activities. Reference List Barnett, Gary and Joshua D Cohn. 2011.Fundamentals Of Swaps Other Derivatives, 2011. New York, NY: Practising Law Institute. RheinlaÃÅ'ˆnder, Thorsten and Jenny Sexton. 2011.Hedging Derivatives. New Jersey: World Scientific. Webber, Nick. 2011.Implementing Models Of Financial Derivatives. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley.

Minority Group and Multiculturalism free essay sample

This research was commissioned by the Transatlantic Council on Migration, an initiative of the Migration Policy Institute (MPI), for its seventh plenary meeting, held November 2011 in Berlin. The meeting’s theme was â€Å"National Identity, Immigration, and Social Cohesion: (Re)building Community in an Ever-Globalizing World† and this paper was one of the reports that informed the Council’s discussions. The Council, an MPI initiative undertaken in cooperation with its policy partner the Bertelsmann Stiftung, is a unique deliberative body that examines vital policy issues and informs migration policymaking processes in North America and Europe. The Council’s work is generously supported by the following foundations and governments: Carnegie Corporation of New York, Open Society Foundations, Bertelsmann Stiftung, the Barrow Cadbury Trust (UK Policy Partner), the Luso-American Development Foundation, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, and the governments of Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden. For more on the Transatlantic Council on Migration, please visit: www. We will write a custom essay sample on Minority Group and Multiculturalism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page migrationpolicy. org/transatlantic.  © 2012 Migration Policy Institute. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the Migration Policy Institute. A full-text PDF of this document is available for free download from www. migrationpolicy. org. Permission for reproducing excerpts from this report should be directed to: Permissions Department, Migration Policy Institute, 1400 16th Street, NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036, or by contacting [emailprotected] org. Suggested citation: Kymlicka, Will. 2012. Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Table of Contents Executive Summary. 1 I. Introduction.. 2 The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism. 3 . II. What Is Multiculturalism?.. 4 A. Misleading Model. 4 . B. Multiculturalism in Context 5 . C. The Evolution of Multiculturalism Policies.. 7 III. Multiculturalism in Practice. 10 A. The Canadian Success Story 10 B. The European Experience. 13 . IV. The Retreat from Multiculturalism.. 14 A. Rhetoric versus Reality .. 14 B. Proliferation of Civic Integration Policies. 15 . V. Conclusion:The Future of Multicultural Citizenship. 21 Appendices 26 Works Cited 28 About the Author.. 32 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE Executive Summary Ideas about the legal and political accommodation of ethnic diversity — commonly termed â€Å"multiculturalism† — emerged in the West as a vehicle for replacing older forms of ethnic and racial hierarchy with new relations of democratic citizenship. Despite substantial evidence that these policies are making progress toward that goal, a chorus of political leaders has declared them a failure and heralded the death of multiculturalism. This popular master narrative is problematic because it mischaracterizes the nature of the experiments in multiculturalism that have been undertaken, exaggerates the extent to which they have been abandoned, and misidentifies not only the genuine difficulties and limitations they have encountered but the options for addressing these problems. Talk about the retreat from multiculturalism has obscured the fact that a form of multicultural integration remains a live option for Western democracies. This report challenges four powerful myths about multiculturalism. First, it disputes the caricature of multiculturalism as the uncritical celebration of diversity at the expense of addressing grave societal problems such as unemployment and social isolation. Instead it offers an account of multiculturalism as the pursuit of new relations of democratic citizenship, inspired and constrained by human-rights ideals. Second, it contests the idea that multiculturalism has been in wholesale retreat, and offers instead evidence that multiculturalism policies (MCPs) have persisted, and have even grown stronger, over the past ten years. Third, it challenges the idea that multiculturalism has failed, and offers instead evidence that MCPs have had positive effects. Fourth, it disputes the idea that the spread of civic integration policies has displaced multiculturalism or rendered it obsolete. The report instead offers evidence that MCPs are fully consistent with certain forms of civic integration policies, and that indeed the combination of multiculturalism with an â€Å"enabling† form of civic integration is both normatively desirable and empirically effective in at least some cases. To help address these issues, this paper draws upon the Multiculturalism Policy Index. This index 1) identifies eight concrete policy areas where liberal-democratic states — faced with a choice — decided to develop more multicultural forms of citizenship in relation to immigrant groups and 2) measures the extent to which countries have espoused some or all of these policies over time. While there have been some high-profile cases of retreat from MCPs, such as the Netherlands, the general pattern from 1980 to 2010 has been one of modest strengthening. Ironically, some countries that have been vociferous about multiculturalism’s â€Å"failure† (e. g. , Germany) have not actually practiced an active multicultural strategy. Talk about the retreat from multiculturalism has obscured the fact that a form of multicultural integration remains a live option for Western democracies. However, not all attempts to adopt new models of multicultural citizenship have taken root or succeeded in achieving their intended effects. There are several factors that can either facilitate or impede the successful implementation of multiculturalism: Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future 1 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE Desecuritization of ethnic relations. Multiculturalism works best if relations between the state and minorities are seen as an issue of social policy, not as an issue of state security. If the state perceives immigrants to be a security threat (such as Arabs and Muslims after 9/11), support for multiculturalism will drop and the space for minorities to even voice multicultural claims will diminish. Human rights. Support for multiculturalism rests on the assumption that there is a shared commitment to human rights across ethnic and religious lines. If states perceive certain groups as unable or unwilling to respect human-rights norms, they are unlikely to accord them multicultural rights or resources. Much of the backlash against multiculturalism is fundamentally driven by anxieties about Muslims, in particular, and their perceived unwillingness to embrace liberal-democratic norms. Border control. Multiculturalism is more controversial when citizens fear they lack control over their borders — for instance when countries are faced with large numbers (or unexpected surges) of unauthorized immigrants or asylum seekers — than when citizens feel the borders are secure. Diversity of immigrant groups. Multiculturalism works best when it is genuinely multicultural — that is, when immigrants come from many source countries rather than coming overwhelmingly from just one (which is more likely to lead to polarized relations with the majority). Economic contributions. Support for multiculturalism depends on the perception that immigrants are holding up their end of the bargain and making a good-faith effort to contribute to society — particularly economically. When these facilitating conditions are present, multiculturalism can be seen as a low-risk option, and indeed seems to have worked well in such cases. Multiculturalism tends to lose support in high-risk situations where immigrants are seen as predominantly illegal, as potential carriers of illiberal practices or movements, or as net burdens on the welfare state. However, one could argue that rejecting immigrant multiculturalism under these circumstances is in fact the higher-risk move. It is precisely when immigrants are perceived as illegitimate, illiberal, and burdensome that multiculturalism may be most needed. I. Introduction Ideas about the legal and political accommodation of ethnic diversity have been in a state of flux around the world for the past 40 years. One hears much about the â€Å"rise and fall of multiculturalism. † Indeed, this has become a kind of master narrative, widely invoked by scholars, journalists, and policymakers alike to explain the evolution of contemporary debates about diversity. Although people disagree about what comes after multiculturalism, there is a surprising consensus that we are in a post-multicultural era. This report contends that this master narrative obscures as much as it reveals, and that we need an alternative framework for thinking about the choices we face. Multiculturalism’s successes and failures, as well as its level of public acceptance, have depended on the nature of the issues at stake and the countries involved, and we need to understand these variations if we are to identify a more sustainable model for accommodating diversity. This paper will argue that the master narrative 1) mischaracterizes the nature of the experiments in multiculturalism that have been undertaken, 2) exaggerates the extent to which they have been abandoned, and 3) misidentifies the genuine difficulties and limitations they have encountered and the options for addressing these problems. 2 Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE Before we can decide whether to celebrate or lament the fall of multiculturalism, we need first to make sure we know what multiculturalism has meant both in theory and in practice, where it has succeeded or failed to meet its objectives, and under what conditions it is likely to thrive in the future. The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism The master narrative of the â€Å"rise and fall of multiculturalism† helpfully captures important features of our current debates. Yet in some respects it is misleading, and may obscure the real challenges and opportunities we face. In its simplest form, the master narrative goes like this:1 Since the mid-1990s we have seen a backlash and retreat from multiculturalism. From the 1970s to mid-1990s, there was a clear trend across Western democracies toward the increased recognition and accommodation of diversity through a range of multiculturalism policies (MCPs) and minority rights. These policies were endorsed both at the domestic level in some states and by international organizations, and involved a rejection of earlier ideas of unitary and homogeneous nationhood. Since the mid-1990s, however, we have seen a backlash and retreat from multiculturalism, and a reassertion of ideas of nation building, common values and identity, and unitary citizenship — even a call for the â€Å"return of assimilation. † This retreat is partly driven by fears among the majority group that the accommodation of diversity has â€Å"gone too far† and is threatening their way of life. This fear often expresses itself in the rise of nativist and populist right-wing political movements, such as the Danish People’s Party, defending old ideas of â€Å"Denmark for the Danish. † But the retreat also reflects a belief among the center-left that multiculturalism has failed to help the intended beneficiaries — namely, minorities themselves — because it has failed to address the underlying sources of their social, economic, and political exclusion and may have unintentionally contributed to their social isolation. As a result, even the center-left political movements that initially championed multiculturalism, such as the social democratic parties in Europe, have backed 1 For influential academic statements of this â€Å"rise and fall† narrative, claiming that it applies across the Western democracies, see Rogers Brubaker, â€Å"The Return of Assimilation? † Ethnic and Racial Studies 24, no. 4 (2001): 531–48; and Christian Joppke, â€Å"The Retreat of Multiculturalism in the Liberal State: Theory and Policy,† British Journal of Sociology 55, no. 2 (2004): 237–57. There are also many accounts of the â€Å"decline,† â€Å"retreat,† or â€Å"crisis† of multiculturalism in particular countries. For the Netherlands, see Han Entzinger, â€Å"The Rise and Fall of Multiculturalism in the Netherlands,† in Toward Assimilation and Citizenship: Immigrants in Liberal Nation-States, eds. Christian Joppke and Ewa Morawska (London: Palgrave, 2003) and Ruud Koopmans, â€Å"Trade-Offs between Equality and Difference: The Crisis of Dutch Multiculturalism in Cross-National Perspective† (Brief, Danish Institute for International Studies, Copenhagen, December 2006). For Britain, see Randall Hansen, â€Å"Diversity, Integration and the Turn from Multiculturalism in the United Kingdom,† in Belonging? Diversity, Recognition and Shared Citizenship in Canada, eds. Keith G. Banting, Thomas J. Courchene, and F. Leslie Seidle (Montreal: Institute for Research on Public Policy, 2007); Les Back, Michael Keith, Azra Khan, Kalbir Shukra, and John Solomos, â€Å"New Labour’s White Heart: Politics, Multiculturalism and the Return of Assimilation,† Political Quarterly 73, No. 4 (2002): 445–54; Steven Vertovec, â€Å"Towards post-multiculturalism? Changing communities, conditions and contexts of diversity,† International Social Science Journal 61 (2010): 83–95. For Australia, see Ien Ang and John Stratton, â€Å"Multiculturalism in Crisis: The New Politics of Race and National Identity in Australia,† in On Not Speaking Chinese: Living Between Asia and the West, ed. I. Ang (London: Routledge, 2001). For Canada, see Lloyd Wong, Joseph Garcea, and Anna Kirova, An Analysis of the ‘Anti- and Post-Multiculturalism’ Discourses: The Fragmentation Position (Alberta: Prairie Centre for Excellence in Research on Immigration and Integration, 2005), http://pmc. metropolis. net/Virtual%20Library/FinalReports/Post-multi%20FINAL%20REPORT%20for%20PCERII%20_2_. pdf. For a good overview of the backlash discourse in various countries, see Steven Vertovec and Susan Wessendorf, eds. , The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices (London: Routledge, 2010). Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future 3 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE away from it and shifted to a discourse that emphasizes â€Å"civic integration,† â€Å"social cohesion,† â€Å"common values,† and â€Å"shared citizenship. †2 The social-democratic discourse of civic integration differs from the radical-right discourse in emphasizing the need to develop a more inclusive national identity and to fight racism and discrimination, but it nonetheless distances itself from the rhetoric and policies of multiculturalism. The term postmulticulturalism has often been invoked to signal this new approach, which seeks to overcome the limits of a naive or misguided multiculturalism while avoiding the oppressive reassertion of homogenizing nationalist ideologies. 3 II. What Is Multiculturalism? A. Misleading Model In much of the post-multiculturalist literature, multiculturalism is characterized as a feel-good celebration of ethnocultural diversity, encouraging citizens to acknowledge and embrace the panoply of customs, traditions, music, and cuisine that exist in a multiethnic society. Yasmin Alibhai-Brown calls this the â€Å"3S† model of multiculturalism in Britain — saris, samosas, and steeldrums. 4 Multiculturalism takes these familiar cultural markers of ethnic groups — clothing, cuisine, and music — and treats them as authentic practices to be preserved by their members and safely consumed by others. Under the banner of multiculturalism they are taught in school, performed in festivals, displayed in media and museums, and so on. This celebratory model of multiculturalism has been the focus of many critiques, including the following: It ignores issues of economic and political inequality. Even if all Britons come to enjoy Jamaican steeldrum music or Indian samosas, this would do nothing to address the real problems facing Caribbean and South Asian communities in Britain — problems of unemployment, poor educational outcomes, residential segregation, poor English language skills, and political marginalization. These economic and political issues cannot be solved simply by celebrating cultural differences. Even with respect to the (legitimate) goal of promoting greater understanding of cultural differences, the focus on celebrating â€Å"authentic† cultural practices that are â€Å"unique† to each group is potentially dangerous. First, not all customs that may be traditionally practiced within a particular group are worthy of being celebrated, or even of being legally tolerated, such as forced marriage. To avoid stirring up controversy, there’s a tendency to choose as the focus of multicultural celebrations safely inoffensive practices — such as cuisine or music — that can be enjoyably consumed by members of the larger society. But this runs the opposite risk 2 For an overview of the attitudes of European social democratic parties to these issues, see Rene Cuperus, Karl Duffek, and Johannes Kandel, eds. , The Challenge of Diversity: European Social Democracy Facing Migration, Integration and Multiculturalism (Innsbruck: Studien Verlag, 2003). For references to â€Å"post-multiculturalism† by progressive intellectuals, who distinguish it from the radical right’s â€Å"antimulticulturalism,† see, regarding the United Kingdom, Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, After Multiculturalism (London: Foreign Policy Centre, 2000), and â€Å"Beyond Multiculturalism,† Canadian Diversity/Diversite Canadienne 3, no. 2 (2004): 51–4; regarding Australia, James Jupp, From White Australia to Woomera: The Story of Australian Immigration, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); and regarding the United States, Desmond King, The Liberty of Strangers: Making the American Nation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), and David A. Hollinger, Post-ethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism, revised edition (New York: Basic Books, 2006). Alibhai-Brown, After Multiculturalism. 3 4 4 Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE of the trivialization or Disneyfication of cultural differences,5 ignoring the real challenges that differences in cultural and religious values can raise. Third, the 3S model of multiculturalism can encourage a conception of groups as hermetically sealed and static, each reproducing its own distinct practices. Multiculturalism may be intended to encourage people to share their customs, but the assumption that each group has its own distinctive customs ignores processes of cultural adaptation, mixing, and melange, as well as emerging cultural commonalities, thereby potentially reinforcing perceptions of minorities as eternally â€Å"other. † This in turn can lead to the strengthening of prejudice and stereotyping, and more generally to the polarization of ethnic relations. Fourth, this model can end up reinforcing power inequalities and cultural restrictions within minority groups. In deciding which traditions are â€Å"authentic,† and how to interpret and display them, the state generally consults the traditional elites within the group — typically older males — while ignoring the way these traditional practices (and traditional elites) are often challenged by internal reformers, who have different views about how, say, a â€Å"good Muslim† should act. It can therefore imprison people in â€Å"cultural scripts† that they are not allowed to question or dispute. According to post-multiculturalists, the growing recognition of these flaws underlies the retreat from multiculturalism and signals the search for new models of citizenship that emphasize 1) political participation and economic opportunities over the symbolic politics of cultural recognition, 2) human rights and individual freedom over respect for cultural traditions, 3) the building of inclusive national identities over the recognition of ancestral cultural identities, and 4) cultural change and cultural mixing over the reification of static cultural differences. This narrative about the rise and fall of 3S multiculturalism will no doubt be familiar to many readers. In my view, however, it is inaccurate. Not only is it a caricature of the reality of multiculturalism as it has developed over the past 40 years in the Western democracies, but it is a distraction from the real issues that we need to face. The 3S model captures something important about natural human tendencies to simplify ethnic differences, and about the logic of global capitalism to sell cosmopolitan cultural products, but it does not capture the nature of post-1960s government MCPs, which have had more complex historical sources and political goals. B. Multiculturalism in Context It is important to put multiculturalism in its historical context. In one sense, it is as old as humanity — different cultures have always found ways of coexisting, and respect for diversity was a familiar feature of many historic empires, such as the Ottoman Empire. But the sort of multiculturalism that is said to have had a â€Å"rise and fall† is a more specific historic phenomenon, emerging first in the Western democracies in the late 1960s. This timing is important, for it helps us situate multiculturalism in relation to larger social transformations of the postwar era. More specifically, multiculturalism is part of a larger human-rights revolution involving ethnic and racial diversity. Prior to World War II, ethnocultural and religious diversity in the West was characterized by a range of illiberal and undemocratic relationships of hierarchy,6 justified by racialist ideologies that explicitly propounded the superiority of some peoples and cultures and their right to rule over others. These ideologies were widely accepted throughout the Western world and underpinned both domestic laws (e. g. , racially biased immigration and citizenship policies) and foreign policies (e. g. , in relation to overseas colonies). 5 6 Neil Bissoondath, Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multiculturalism in Canada (Toronto: Penguin, 1994). Including relations of conqueror and conquered, colonizer and colonized, master and slave, settler and indigenous, racialized and unmarked, normalized and deviant, orthodox and heretic, civilized and primitive, and ally and enemy. Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future 5 MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE After World War II, however, the world recoiled against Hitler’s fanatical and murderous use of such ideologies, and the United Nations decisively repudiated them in favor of a new ideology of the equality of races and peoples. And this new assumption of human equality generated a series of political movements designed to contest the lingering presence or enduring effects of older hierarchies. We can distinguish three â€Å"waves† of such movements: 1) the struggle for decolonization, concentrated in the period 1948–65; 2) the struggle against racial segregation and discrimination, initiated and exemplified by the AfricanAmerican civil-rights movement from 1955 to 1965; and 3) the struggle for multiculturalism and minority rights, which emerged in the late 1960s. Multiculturalism is part of a larger human-rights revolution involving ethnic and racial diversity. Each of these movements draws upon the human-rights revolution, and its foundational ideology of the equality of races and peoples, to challenge the legacies of earlier ethnic and racial hierarchies. Indeed, the human-rights revolution plays a double role here, not just as the inspiration for a struggle, but also as a constraint on the permissible goals and means of that struggle. Insofar as historically excluded or stigmatized groups struggle against earlier hierarchies in the name of equality, they too have to renounce their own traditions of exclusion or oppression in the treatment of, say, women, gays, people of mixed race, religious dissenters, and so on. Human rights, and liberal-democratic constitutionalism more generally, provide the overarching framework within which these struggles are debated and addressed. Each of these movements, therefore, can be seen as contributing to a process of democratic â€Å"citizenization† — that is, turning the earlier catalog of hierarchical relations into relationships of liberaldemocratic citizenship. This entails transforming both the vertical relationships between minorities and the state and the horizontal relationships among the members of different groups. In the past, it was often assumed that the only way to engage in this process of citizenization was to impose a single undifferentiated model of citizenship on all individuals. But the ideas and policies of multiculturalism that emerged from the 1960s start from the assumption that this complex history inevitably and appropriately generates group-differentiated ethnopolitical claims. The key to citizenization is not to suppress these differential claims but to filter them through and frame them within the language of human rights, civil liberties, and democratic accountability. And this is what multiculturalist movements have aimed to do. The precise character of the resulting multicultural reforms varies from group to group, as befits the distinctive history that each has faced. They all start from the antidiscrimination principle that underpinned the second wave but go beyond it to challenge other forms of exclusion or stigmatization. In most Western countries, explicit state-sponsored discrimination against ethnic, racial, or religious minorities had largely ceased by the 1960s and 1970s, under the influence of the second wave of humanrights struggles. Yet ethnic and racial hierarchies persist in many societies, whether measured in terms of economic inequalities, political underrepresentation, social stigmatization, or cultural invisibility. Various forms of multiculturalism have been developed to help overcome these lingering inequalities. The focus in this report is on multiculturalism as it pertains to (permanently settled) immigrant groups,7 7 There was briefly in some European countries a form of â€Å"multiculturalism† that was not aimed at the inclusion of permanent immigrants, but rather at ensuring that temporary migrants would return to their country of origin. For example, mothertongue education in Germany was not initially introduced â€Å"as a minority right but in order to enable guest worker children to reintegrate in their countries of origin† (Karen Schonwalder, â€Å"Germany: Integration Policy and Pluralism in a Self-Conscious Country of Immigration,† in The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies and Practices, eds. Steven Vertovec and Susanne Wessendorf [London: Routledge, 2010], 160). Needless to say, this sort of â€Å"returnist† multiculturalism — premised on the idea that migrants are foreigners who should return to their real home — has nothing to do with multiculturalism policies (MCPs) premised on the idea that immigrants belong in their host countries, and which aim to make immigrants 6 Multiculturalism: Success, Failure, and the Future MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE but it is worth noting that struggles for multicultural citizenship have also emerged in relation to historic minorities and indigenous peoples. 8 C. The Evolution of Multiculturalism Policies The case of immigrant multiculturalism is just one aspect of a larger â€Å"ethnic revival† across the Western democracies,9 in which different types of minorities have struggled for new forms of multicultural citizenship that combine both antidiscrimination measures and positive forms of recognition and accommodation. Multicultural citizenship for immigrant groups clearly does not involve the same types of claims as for indigenous peoples or national minorities: immigrant groups do not typically seek land rights, territorial autonomy, or official language status. What then is the substance of multicultural citizenship in relation to immigrant groups? The Multiculturalism Policy Index is one attempt to measure the evolution of MCPs in a standardized format that enables comparative research. 10 The index takes the following eight policies as the most common or emblematic forms of immigrant MCPs:11 Constitutional, legislative, or parliamentary affirmation of multiculturalism, at the central and/ or regional and municipal levels The adoption of multiculturalism in school curricula The inclusion of ethnic representation/sensitivity in the mandate of public media or media licensing Exemptions from dress codes, either by statute or by court cases Allowing of dual citizenship The funding of ethnic group organizations to support cultural activities The funding of bilingual education or mother-tongue instruction Affirmative action for disadvantaged immigrant groups12 feel more at home where they are. The focus of this paper is on the latter type of multiculturalism, which is centrally concerned with constructing new relations of citizenship. 8 In relation to indigenous peoples, for example — such as the Maori in New Zealand, Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Australia, American Indians, the Sami in Scandinavia, and the Inuit of Greenland — new models of multicultural citizenship have emerged since the late 1960s that include policies such as land rights, self-government rights, recognition of customary laws, and guarantees of political consultation. And in relation to substate national groups — such as the Basques and Catalans in Spain, Flemish and Walloons in Belgium, Scots and Welsh in Britain, Quebecois in Canada, Germans in South Tyrol, Swedish in Finland — we see new models of multicultural citizenship that include policies such as federal or quasi-federal territorial autonomy; official language status, either in the region or nationally; and guarantees of representation in the central government or on constitutional courts. 9 Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 10 Keith Banting and I developed this index, first published in Keith Banting and Will Kymlicka, eds. , Multiculturalism and the Welfare State: Recognition and Redistribution in Contemporary Democracies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). Many of the ideas discussed in this paper are the result of our collaboration. 11 As with all cross-national indices, there is a trade-off between standardization and sensitivity to local nuances. There is no universally accepted definition of multiculturalism policies and no hard and fast line that would sharply distinguish MCPs from closely related policy fields, such as antidis

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